Meditation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article
is about a variety of mental disciplines used to induce specific modes or
states of consciousness. For other uses, see Meditation (disambiguation).
Meditation is a
practice in which an individual trains the mind or induces a mode of consciousness, either to realize some
benefit[1] or as an
end in itself.[2]
The term meditation refers to a broad variety of practices (much
like the term sports) that includes techniques designed to promote
relaxation, build internal energy or life force (qi, ki, prana, etc.) and develop compassion,[3] love, patience, generosity and forgiveness. A
particularly ambitious form of meditation aims at effortlessly sustained
single-pointed concentration[4] meant to
enable its practitioner to enjoy an indestructible
sense of well-being while engaging in any life
activity.
The word meditation
carries different meanings in different contexts. Meditation has been practiced
since antiquity as a component of numerous religious traditions and beliefs.[5] Meditation often involves an
internal effort to self-regulate the mind in some way. Meditation is often used
to clear the mind and ease many health issues, such as high blood pressure,[6]
depression, and anxiety. It may be done sitting, or in an active way—for instance, Buddhist monks involve awareness in their
day-to-day activities as a form of mind-training. Prayer beads or other ritual objects are
commonly used during meditation in order to keep track of or remind the
practitioner about some aspect of the training.
Meditation
may involve generating an emotional state for the purpose of analyzing that
state—such as anger, hatred, etc.—or cultivating a particular mental response
to various phenomena, such as compassion.[7] The term "meditation" can
refer to the state itself, as well as to practices or techniques employed to
cultivate the state.[8] Meditation may also involve
repeating a mantra and closing the eyes.[9] The mantra is chosen based on its
suitability to the individual meditator. Meditation has a calming effect and
directs awareness inward until pure awareness is achieved, described as
"being awake inside without being aware of anything except awareness
itself."[10] In brief, there are dozens of
specific styles of meditation practice, and many different types of activity
commonly referred to as meditative practices.[11]
Etymology
The English meditation
is derived from the Latin meditatio, from a verb meditari, meaning "to think,
contemplate, devise, ponder".[12]
In the Old Testament, hāgâ (Hebrew: הגה)
means to sigh or murmur, and also, to meditate.[13] When the Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek, hāgâ
became the Greek melete. The Latin Bible then translated hāgâ/melete
into meditatio.[14] The use of the term meditatio
as part of a formal, stepwise process of meditation goes back to the
12th-century monk Guigo II.[15]
The Tibetan
word for meditation "Gom" means "to become familiar with"
and has the strong implication of training the mind to be familiar with states
that are beneficial: concentration, compassion, correct understanding,
patience, humility, perseverance, etc.[16]
Apart from
its historical usage, the term meditation was introduced as a
translation for Eastern spiritual practices, referred to as dhyāna in Buddhism and in Hinduism, which comes from the Sanskrit root dhyai, meaning to
contemplate or meditate.[8][17] The term "meditation" in
English may also refer to practices from Islamic Sufism,[18] or other traditions such as Jewish Kabbalah and Christian Hesychasm.[19] An edited book about
"meditation" published in 2003, for example, included chapter
contributions by authors describing Hindu, Buddhist, Taoist, Jewish, Christian
and Islamic traditions.[20][21] Scholars have noted that "the
term 'meditation' as it has entered contemporary usage" is parallel to the
term "contemplation" in Christianity,[22] but in many cases, practices
similar to modern forms of meditation were simply called 'prayer'. Christian,
Judaic and Islamic forms of meditation are typically devotional, scriptural or
thematic, while Asian forms of meditation are often more purely technical.[23]
History
Main
article: History of
meditation
Man
Meditating in a Garden Setting
The history
of meditation is intimately bound up with the religious context within which it
was practiced.[24][clarification needed] Some authors have even suggested the
hypothesis that the emergence of the capacity for focused attention, an element
of many methods of meditation,[25] may have contributed to the final
phases of human biological evolution.[26] Some of the earliest references to
meditation are found in the Hindu Vedas.[24] Wilson translates the most famous
Vedic mantra 'Gayatri' thus : "We meditate on that desirable light of
the divine Savitri, who influences our pious rites" (Rgveda :
Mandala-3, Sukta-62, Rcha-10). Around the 6th to 5th centuries BCE, other forms
of meditation developed in Taoist China and Buddhist India.[24]
In the west,
by 20 BCE Philo of
Alexandria had written
on some form of "spiritual exercises" involving attention (prosoche)
and concentration[27] and by the 3rd century Plotinus had developed meditative
techniques.
The Pāli Canon, which dates to 1st century BCE
considers Indian Buddhist meditation as a step towards
salvation.[28] By the time Buddhism was spreading
in China, the Vimalakirti
Sutra which dates
to 100 CE included a number of passages on meditation, clearly pointing to Zen.[29] The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism introduced meditation to other
Asian countries, and in 653 the first meditation hall was opened in Singapore.[30] Returning from China around 1227,
Dōgen wrote the instructions for Zazen.[31][32]
The Islamic practice of Dhikr had involved the repetition of the 99 Names of God
since the 8th or 9th century.[33][34] By the 12th century, the practice
of Sufism included specific meditative techniques, and its followers practiced
breathing controls and the repetition of holy words.[35] Interactions with Indians or the Sufis may have influenced the Eastern Christian meditation approach to hesychasm, but this can not be proved.[36][37] Between the 10th and 14th
centuries, hesychasm was developed, particularly on Mount Athos in Greece, and involves the
repetition of the Jesus prayer.[38]
Buddhist monk Meditating in a Waterfall
Setting
Western
Christian meditation
contrasts with most other approaches in that it does not involve the repetition
of any phrase or action and requires no specific posture. Western Christian
meditation progressed
from the 6th century practice of Bible reading among Benedictine monks called Lectio Divina, i.e. divine reading. Its four
formal steps as a "ladder" were defined by the monk Guigo II in the 12th century with the Latin
terms lectio, meditatio, oratio, and contemplatio
(i.e. read, ponder, pray, contemplate). Western Christian
meditation was further
developed by saints such as Ignatius of
Loyola and Teresa of Avila in the 16th century.[39][40][41][42]
Secular
forms of meditation were introduced in India in the 1950s as a Westernized form
of Hindu meditative techniques and arrived in the United States and Europe in
the 1960s. Rather than focusing on spiritual growth, secular meditation
emphasizes stress reduction, relaxation and self-improvement.[43][44] Both spiritual and secular forms of
meditation have been subjects of scientific analyses. Research on
meditation began in
1931, with scientific research increasing dramatically during the 1970s and
1980s.[45] Since the beginning of the '70s
more than a thousand studies of meditation in English-language have been
reported.[45] However, after 60 years of
scientific study, the exact mechanism at work in meditation remains unclear.[46]
Modern definitions and Western models
Definitions and scope
|
Definitions
or Characterizations of Meditation:
Examples from Prominent Reviews* |
|
|
Definition
/ Characterization
|
Review
|
|
•"[M]editation refers
to a family of self-regulation practices that focus on training attention and
awareness in order to bring mental processes under greater voluntary control
and thereby foster general mental well-being and development and/or specific
capacities such as calm, clarity, and concentration"[47]:228–9
|
Walsh
& Shapiro (2006)
|
|
•"[M]editation
is used to describe practices that self-regulate the body and mind, thereby
affecting mental events by engaging a specific attentional set.... regulation
of attention is the central commonality across the many divergent
methods"[48]:180
|
Cahn &
Polich (2006)
|
|
•"We define
meditation... as a stylized mental technique... repetitively practiced for
the purpose of attaining a subjective experience that is frequently described
as very restful, silent, and of heightened alertness, often characterized as
blissful"[49]:415
|
Jevning et
al. (1992)
|
|
•"the need for the
meditator to retrain his attention, whether through concentration or
mindfulness, is the single invariant ingredient in... every meditation
system"[19]:107
|
Goleman
(1988)
|
As early as 1971, Claudio Naranjo noted that "The word 'meditation' has been used to designate a variety of practices that differ enough from one another so that we may find trouble in defining what meditation is."[51]:6 There remains no definition of necessary and sufficient criteria for meditation that has achieved universal or widespread acceptance within the modern scientific community, as one study recently noted a "persistent lack of consensus in the literature" and a "seeming intractability of defining meditation".[52]:135
In popular
usage, the word "meditation" and the phrase "meditative
practice" are often used imprecisely to designate broadly similar
practices, or sets of practices, that are found across many cultures and
traditions.[19][53]
Some of the
difficulty in precisely defining meditation has been the need to recognize the
particularities of the many various traditions.[54] There may be differences between
the theories of one tradition of meditation as to what it means to practice
meditation.[55] The differences between the various
traditions themselves, which have grown up a great distance apart from each
other, may be even starker.[55] To accurately define "what is
meditation" has caused difficulties for modern scientists. Scientific
reviews have proposed that researchers attempt to more clearly define the type
of meditation being practiced in order that the results of their studies be
made clearer.[54]:499 Taylor noted that to refer only to
meditation from a particular faith (e.g., "Hindu" or
"Buddhist")
...is not
enough, since the cultural traditions from which a particular kind of
meditation comes are quite different and even within a single tradition differ
in complex ways. The specific name of a school of thought or a teacher or the
title of a specific text is often quite important for identifying a particular
type of meditation.[56]:2
The table
shows several definitions of meditation that have been used by influential
modern reviews of research on meditation across multiple traditions. Within a
specific context, more precise meanings are not uncommonly given the word
"meditation".[57] For example, "meditation"
is sometimes the translation of meditatio in Latin. Meditatio is
the third of four steps of Lectio Divina, an ancient form of Christian
prayer. "Meditation" also refers to the second of the three steps of Yoga in Patanjali's Yoga Sutras, a step called dhyāna in
Sanskrit. Meditation refers to a mental or spiritual state that may be
attained by such practices,[8]
and also refers to the practice of that state.
This article
mainly focuses on meditation in the broad sense of a type of discipline, found
in various forms in many cultures, by which the practitioner attempts to get
beyond the reflexive, "thinking" mind[58] (sometimes called "discursive
thinking"[59] or "logic"[60]) into a deeper, more devout, or
more relaxed state. The terms "meditative practice" and
"meditation" are mostly used here in this broad sense. However, usage
may vary somewhat by context – readers should be aware that in quotations,
or in discussions of particular traditions, more specialized meanings of
"meditation" may sometimes be used (with meanings made clear by context
whenever possible).
Western typologies
Ornstein
noted that "Most techniques of meditation do not exist as solitary
practices but are only artificially separable from an entire system of practice
and belief."[61]:143 This means that, for instance,
while monks engage in meditation as a part of their everyday lives, they also
engage the codified rules and live together in monasteries in specific cultural
settings that go along with their meditative practices. These meditative
practices sometimes have similarities (often noticed by Westerners), for
instance concentration on the breath is practiced in Zen, Tibetan and
Theravadan contexts, and these similarities or "typologies" are noted
here.
Progress on
the "intractable" problem of defining meditation was attempted by a
recent study of views common to seven experts trained in diverse but
empirically highly studied (clinical or Eastern-derived) forms of meditation.[62] The study identified "three
main criteria... as essential to any meditation practice: the use of a defined
technique, logic relaxation, and a self-induced state/mode. Other criteria
deemed important [but not essential] involve a state of psychophysical
relaxation, the use of a self-focus skill or anchor, the presence of a state of
suspension of logical thought processes, a religious/spiritual/philosophical
context, or a state of mental silence."[52]:135 However, the study cautioned,
"It is plausible that meditation is best thought of as a natural category
of techniques best captured by 'family
resemblances'... or by
the related 'prototype'
model of concepts."[52]:135[63]
In modern
psychological research, meditation has been defined and characterized in a
variety of ways; many of these emphasize the role of attention.[19][47][48][49]
In the West,
meditation is sometimes thought of in two broad categories: concentrative
meditation and mindfulness meditation.[64] These two categories are discussed
in the following two paragraphs, with concentrative meditation being used
interchangeably with focused attention and mindfulness meditation being used
interchangeably with open monitoring,
Direction of
mental attention... A practitioner can focus intensively on one particular
object (so-called concentrative meditation), on all mental events that
enter the field of awareness (so-called mindfulness meditation), or both
specific focal points and the field of awareness.[52]:130[65]
One style,
Focused Attention (FA) meditation, entails the voluntary focusing of attention
on a chosen object. The other style, Open Monitoring (OM) meditation, involves
non-reactive monitoring of the content of experience from moment to moment.[66]
Other
typologies have also been proposed,[67][68] and some techniques shift among
major categories.[69]
Evidence
from neuroimaging studies suggests that the categories of meditation, defined
by how they direct attention, appear to generate different brainwave patterns.[67][68] Evidence also suggests that using
different focus objects during meditation may generate different brainwave
patterns.[70]
Religious and spiritual meditation
Bahá'í Faith
In the
teachings of the Bahá'í Faith, meditation along with prayer are both
primary tools for spiritual development[71] and mainly refer to one's
reflection on the words of God.[72] While prayer and meditation are linked where meditation happens
generally in a prayerful attitude, prayer is seen specifically as turning
toward God,[73]
and meditation is seen as a communion with one's self where one focuses on the
divine.[72]
The Bahá'í
teachings note that
the purpose of meditation is to strengthen one's understanding of the words of
God, and to make one's soul more susceptible to their potentially
transformative power,[72] more receptive to the need for both
prayer and meditation to bring about and maintain a spiritual communion with
God.[74]
Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the religion, never
specified any particular form of meditation, and thus each person is free to
choose their own form.[71] However, he specifically did state
that Bahá'ís should read a passage of the Bahá'í
writings twice a
day, once in the morning, and once in the evening, and meditate on it. He also
encouraged people to reflect on one's actions and worth at the end of each day.[72] During the Nineteen Day Fast, a period of the year during which
Bahá'ís adhere to a sunrise-to-sunset fast, they meditate and pray to
reinvigorate their spiritual forces.[75]
Buddhism
Main
article: Buddhist
meditation
Buddhist
meditation refers to the meditative practices associated with the religion and
philosophy of Buddhism. Core meditation techniques have been preserved in
ancient Buddhist
texts and have
proliferated and diversified through teacher-student transmissions. Buddhists pursue meditation as part of the
path toward enlightenment and nirvana.[76] The closest words for meditation in
the classical languages of Buddhism are bhāvanā,[77] jhāna/dhyāna,[78] and vipassana. According to Manmatha Nath Dutt,
there is hardly any difference between mainstream Hinduism's Dhyana, Dharana
and Samadhi with the Buddhist Dhyana, Bhavana, Samadhi, especially as both
require following the precepts (nayas and niyamas.)
Buddhist
meditation techniques have become increasingly popular in the wider world, with
many non-Buddhists taking them up for a variety of reasons. There is
considerable homogeneity across meditative practices – such as breath meditation and various recollections (anussati) –
that are used across Buddhist
schools, as well as
significant diversity. In the Theravāda tradition alone, there are over
fifty methods for developing mindfulness and forty for developing
concentration, while in the Tibetan tradition there are thousands of
visualization meditations.[79] Most classical and contemporary
Buddhist meditation guides are school-specific.[80]
The Buddha
is said to have identified two paramount mental qualities that arise from
wholesome meditative practice:
·
"serenity"
or "tranquillity" (Pali: samatha) which steadies, composes,
unifies and concentrates the mind;
·
"insight"
(Pali: vipassana) which enables one to see, explore and discern
"formations" (conditioned phenomena based on the five aggregates).[81]
Through the
meditative development of serenity, one is able to release obscuring hindrances; it is with the release of the
hindrances through the meditative development of insight that one gains
liberating wisdom.[82]
Christianity
A strong
believer in Christian
meditation, Saint Pio of
Pietrelcina stated:
"Through the study of books one seeks God; by meditation one finds
him."[83]
Main
articles: Christian
meditation, Aspects of Christian meditation, Contemplative
prayer, Hesychasm and Theoria
Christian
meditation is a term for a form of prayer in which a structured attempt is made
to get in touch with, and to deliberately reflect upon the revelations of, God.[84] The word meditation comes from the
Latin word meditari, which means to concentrate. Christian meditation is
the process of deliberately focusing on specific thoughts (e.g. a biblical scene involving Jesus and the Virgin Mary) and reflecting on their meaning in
the context of the love of God.[85]
Christian
meditation contrasts with Eastern forms of meditation as radically as the
portrayal of God the
Father in the
Bible contrasts with depictions of Krishna or Brahman in Indian teachings.[86] Unlike Eastern meditations, most
styles of Christian meditations do not rely on the repeated use of mantras, and yet are also intended to stimulate thought and
deepen meaning. Christian meditation aims to heighten the personal relationship
based on the love of God that marks Christian communion.[87][88]
In Aspects of Christian meditation, the Catholic Church warned of potential
incompatibilities in mixing Christian and Eastern styles of meditation.[89] In 2003, in A Christian reflection on the New Age the Vatican announced that the "Church
avoids any concept that is close to those of the New Age".[90][91][92]
Christian
meditation is sometimes taken to mean the middle level in a broad three stage
characterization of prayer: it then involves more reflection than first level
vocal prayer, but is more structured than the
multiple layers of contemplation in Christianity.[93]
Daoism
Main
article: Daoist
meditation
"Gathering
the Light", Taoist meditation from The Secret of the Golden Flower
Taoist or
Daoist meditation has a long history, and has developed various techniques
including concentration, visualization, qi cultivation, contemplation, and mindfulness
meditations. Traditional Daoist meditative practices were influenced by Chinese Buddhism beginning around the 5th century,
and later had influence upon Traditional Chinese medicine and the Chinese
martial arts.
Livia Kohn
distinguishes three basic types of Daoist meditation:
"concentrative", "insight", and "visualization".[94] Ding 定 (literally means "decide; settle; stabilize") refers to
"deep concentration", "intent contemplation", or
"perfect absorption." Guan 觀 (lit. "watch; observe; view") meditation seeks to merge and
attain unity with the Dao. It was developed by Tang Dynasty (618–907) Daoist masters based upon
the Tiantai Buddhist practice of Vipassanā "insight" or
"wisdom" meditation. Cun 存 (lit. "exist; be present; survive") has a sense of "to
cause to exist; to make present" in the meditation techniques popularized
by the Daoist Shangqing and Lingbao Schools. A meditator visualizes or actualizes
solar and lunar essences, lights, and deities within his/her body, which
supposedly results in health and longevity, even xian 仙/仚/僊, "immortality".
The (late
4th century) Guanzi essay Neiye 內業 "Inward training" is the oldest received
writing on the subject of qi cultivation and breath-control
meditation techniques.[95] For instance, "When you
enlarge your mind and let go of it, when you relax your vital breath and expand
it, when your body is calm and unmoving: And you can maintain the One and
discard the myriad disturbances. ... This is called "revolving the vital
breath": Your thoughts and deeds seem heavenly."[96]
The (c. 3rd
century BCE) Daoist Zhuangzi records zuowang or "sitting forgetting"
meditation. Confucius asked his disciple Yan Hui to explain what "sit and forget" means:
"I slough off my limbs and trunk, dim my intelligence, depart from my
form, leave knowledge behind, and become identical with the Transformational
Thoroughfare."[97]
Daoist
meditation practices are central to Chinese
martial arts (and some Japanese
martial arts), especially
the qi-related Neijia "internal martial arts".
Some well-known examples are Daoyin "guiding and pulling", Qigong "life-energy exercises", Neigong "internal exercises", Neidan "internal alchemy", and Taijiquan "great ultimate boxing",
which is thought of as moving meditation. One common explanation contrasts
"movement in stillness" referring to energetic visualization of qi
circulation in Qigong and zuochan "seated meditation",[69]
versus "stillness in movement" referring to a state of meditative
calm in Taijiquan forms.
Hinduism
Meditation
is a science practiced by followers of Sanadhana Dharma (now called Hinduism)
since many tens of thousands years ago. It was originally called Dhyana. Buddha
was a Hindu prince who attained wisdom through meditation under a Peepal tree
sitting on a Dharba or kusha mat. Dharba or Kusha is a grass. It is woven to
make mats that are used for meditation. Ancient Hindu scriptures originally
forbid meditation without a Dharba mat. Miraculous powers were said to have
been acquired through diligent practice of yoga and meditation. There are many
schools and styles of meditation within Hinduism. Yoga is generally done to
prepare one for meditation, and meditation is done to realize union of one's
self, one's ātman, with the omnipresent and non-dual Brahman. This experience is referred to as moksha by Hindus, and is similar to the concept of nirvana in Buddhism. The earliest clear
references to meditation in Hindu literature are in the middle Upanishads and the Mahabharata, the latter of which includes the Bhagavad Gita.[98][99] According to Gavin Flood, the earlier Brihadaranyaka Upanishad refers to meditation when it states that "having
become calm and concentrated, one perceives the self (ātman) within
oneself".[100]
Within Patañjali's Ashtanga yoga practice there are eight limbs
leading to kaivalya "aloneness." These are
ethical discipline (yamas),
rules (niyamas),
physical postures (āsanas), breath control (prāṇāyama),
withdrawal from the senses (pratyāhāra),
one-pointedness of mind (dhāraṇā), meditation (dhyāna), and finally samādhi, which is often described as the
realization of the identity of the Self (ātman) with the omnipresent (Brahman),
and is the ultimate aim of all Hindu yogis.
Meditation
in Hinduism is practiced in different forms by different schools and sects and
has expanded beyond Hinduism to the West.[100]
Mantra
meditation, with the use of a japa mala and especially with focus on the Hare Krishna maha-mantra, is a central practice of the Gaudiya Vaishnava faith tradition and the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), also known as the Hare
Krishna movement.
Islam
Remembrance
of God in Islam, which is known by the concept Dhikr is interpreted in different meditative techniques in Sufism or Islamic mysticism.[33][34] This became one of the essential
elements of Sufism as it was systematized traditionally. It is juxtaposed with fikr
(thinking) which leads to knowledge.[101] By the 12th century, the practice
of Sufism included specific meditative techniques, and its followers practiced
breathing controls and the repetition of holy words.[35]
Numerous Sufi traditions place emphasis upon a meditative procedure which
comes from the cognitive aspect to one of the two principal approaches to be
found in the Buddhist
traditions: that of
the concentration technique, involving high-intensity
and sharply focused introspection. In the Oveyssi-Shahmaghsoudi Sufi
order, for example, this is particularly evident, where muraqaba takes the form of tamarkoz, the
latter being a Persian term that means concentration.
Meditative quiescence is said to have a quality of healing, and—in contemporary
terminology—enhancing creativity.[102]
Tafakkur or tadabbur in Sufism
literally means reflection upon the universe: this is considered to permit
access to a form of cognitive and emotional development that can emanate only
from the higher level, i.e. from God. The sensation of receiving divine inspiration awakens and liberates both heart and intellect, permitting such inner growth that
the apparently mundane actually takes on the quality of the infinite. Muslim teachings embrace life as a
test of one's submission to God.[103]
Meditation
in the Sufi traditions is largely based on a spectrum of mystical exercises, varying from one lineage
to another. Such techniques, particularly the more audacious, can be, and often
have been down the ages, a source of controversy among scholars. One broad
group of ulema, followers of the great Al-Ghazali, for example, have in general been
open to such techniques and forms of devotion.
In recent
years, meditation or Muraqaba has been popularized in various
parts of the world by Silsila Naqshbandia Mujaddadia under Nazim Al-Haqqani and Silsila Azeemia under Khwaja Shamsuddin Azeemi.
Jainism
Main
article: Jain
meditation
Mahavira in meditative posture
In Jainism, meditation has been a core
spiritual practice, one that Jains believe people have undertaken since the
teaching of the Tirthankara, Rishabha.[104] All the twenty-four Tirthankaras
practiced deep meditation and attained enlightenment.[105] They are all shown in meditative
postures in the images or idols. Mahavira practiced deep meditation for
twelve years and attained enlightenment.[106] The Acaranga Sutra dating to 500 BCE, addresses the
meditation system of Jainism in detail.[107] Acharya Bhadrabahu of the 4th century BCE practiced
deep Mahaprana meditation for twelve years.[108] Kundakunda of 1st century BCE, opened new
dimensions of meditation in Jain tradition through his books Samayasāra, Pravachansar and others.[109]
Jain
meditation and spiritual practices system were referred to as salvation-path.
It has three important parts called the Ratnatraya "Three Jewels": right
perception and faith, right knowledge and right conduct.[110] Meditation in Jainism aims at realizing
the self, attaining salvation, take the soul to complete freedom.[111] It aims to reach and to remain in
the pure state of soul which is believed to be pure consciousness, beyond any
attachment or aversion. The practitioner strives to be just a knower-seer
(Gyata-Drashta). Jain meditation can be broadly categorized to Dharmya Dhyana
and Shukla Dhyana.
There exists
a number of meditation techniques such as pindāstha-dhyāna, padāstha-dhyāna,
rūpāstha-dhyāna, rūpātita-dhyāna, savīrya-dhyāna, etc. In padāstha
dhyāna one focuses on Mantra.[112] A Mantra could be either a
combination of core letters or words on deity or themes. There is a rich
tradition of Mantra in Jainism. All Jain followers irrespective of their sect,
whether Digambara or Svetambara, practice mantra. Mantra chanting
is an important part of daily lives of Jain monks and followers. Mantra
chanting can be done either loudly or silently in mind. Yogasana and Pranayama has been an
important practice undertaken since ages. Pranayama – breathing
exercises – are performed to strengthen the five Pranas or vital
energy.[113] Yogasana and Pranayama
balances the functioning of neuro-endocrine system of body and helps in
achieving good physical, mental and emotional health.[114]
Contemplation
is a very old and important meditation technique. The practitioner meditates
deeply on subtle facts. In agnya vichāya, one contemplates on seven
facts – life and non-life, the inflow, bondage, stoppage and removal of karmas,
and the final accomplishment of liberation. In apaya vichāya, one
contemplates on the incorrect insights one indulges, which eventually develops
right insight. In vipaka vichāya, one reflects on the eight causes or
basic types of karma. In sansathan vichāya, one thinks about the
vastness of the universe and the loneliness of the soul.[112]
Acharya Mahapragya formulated Preksha
meditation in the
1970s and presented a well-organised system of meditation. Asana and Pranayama, meditation, contemplation,
mantra and therapy are its integral parts.[115] Numerous Preksha meditation centers
came into existence around the world and numerous meditations camps are being
organized to impart training in it.
Judaism
Main
article: Jewish
meditation
There is
evidence that Judaism has had meditative practices that go back thousands of
years.[116][117] For instance, in the Torah, the patriarch Isaac is described as going "לשוח" (lasuach)
in the field—a term understood by all commentators as some type of meditative
practice (Genesis 24:63).[118]
Similarly,
there are indications throughout the Tanach (the Hebrew Bible) that meditation was used by the prophets.[119] In the Old Testament, there are two Hebrew words for meditation: hāgâ (Hebrew: הגה), which means to sigh or murmur, but also to meditate,
and sîḥâ (Hebrew: שיחה), which means to muse, or rehearse in one's mind.[120]
Some
meditative traditions have been encouraged in the school of Judaism known as Kabbalah, and some Jews have described
Kabbalah as an inherently a meditative field of study.[121][122] Aryeh Kaplan has argued that, for
the Kabbalist, the ultimate purpose of meditative practice is to understand and
cleave to the Divine.[123] Classic methods include the mental
visualisation of the supernal realms the soul navigates through to achieve
certain ends. One of the best known types of meditation in early Jewish
mysticism was the work of the Merkabah, from the root /R-K-B/ meaning
"chariot" (of God).[124]
Meditation
has been of interest to a wide variety of modern Jews. In modern Jewish
practice, one of the best known meditative practices is called "hitbodedut"
(התבודדות, alternatively transliterated as "hisbodedus"), and
is explained in Kabbalistic, Hasidic, and Mussar writings, especially the Hasidic
method of Rabbi Nachman of
Breslav. The word
derives from the Hebrew word "boded" (בודד), meaning the state of
being alone.[125] Another Hasidic system is the Habad method of "hisbonenus", related to the Sephirah of "Binah", Hebrew for
understanding.[126] This practice is the analytical
reflective process of making oneself understand a mystical concept well, that
follows and internalises its study in Hasidic writings.
The Musar Movement, founded by Rabbi Israel Salanter
in the middle of the nineteenth-century, emphasized meditative practices of
introspection and visualization that could help to improve moral character.[127]
New Age
Main
article: New Age
New Age
meditations are often influenced by Eastern philosophy, mysticism, Yoga,
Hinduism and Buddhism, yet may contain some degree of Western influence. In the
West, meditation found its mainstream roots through the social revolution of
the 1960s and 1970s, when many of the youth of the day rebelled against
traditional belief
systems as a
reaction against what some perceived as the failure of Christianity to provide
spiritual and ethical guidance.[128] New Age meditation as practised by
the early hippies is regarded for its techniques of blanking out the mind and
releasing oneself from conscious thinking. This is often aided by repetitive
chanting of a mantra, or focusing on an object.[129] New Age meditation evolved into a
range of purposes and practices, from serenity and balance to access to other
realms of consciousness to the concentration of energy in group meditation to
the supreme goal of samadhi, as in the ancient yogic practice
of meditation.[130]
Pagan and Occult Religions
Religions
and religious movements which use magic, such as Wicca, Thelema, Neopaganism, occultism etc., often require their adherents
to meditate as a preliminary to magical work. This is because magic is often
thought to require a particular state of mind in order to make contact with
spirits, or because one has to visualize one's goal or otherwise keep intent
focused for a long period during the ritual in order to see the desired
outcome. Meditation practice in these religions usually revolves around
visualization, absorbing energy from the universe or higher self, directing
one's internal energy, and inducing various trance states. Meditation and magic
practice often overlap in these religions as meditation is often seen as merely
a stepping stone to supernatural power, and the meditation sessions may be
peppered with various chants and spells.
Sikhism
Main article:
Nām Japō
In Sikhism, simran (meditation) and good deeds are
both necessary to achieve the devotee's Spiritual goals;[131]
without good deeds meditation is futile. When Sikhs meditate they aim to feel God's presence and immerge in the divine light.[132] It is only God's divine will or order that allows a devotee to desire to begin to
meditate. Guru Nanak in the Japji Sahib daily Sikh scripture explains, "Visits to temples, penance,
compassion and charity gain you but a sesame seed of credit. It is hearkening
to His Name, accepting and adoring Him that
obtains emancipation by bathing in the shrine of soul. All virtues are Yours, O
Lord! I have none; Without good deeds one can't even meditate." Japji Sahib (Stanza 21).[133]
Nām Japnā involves focusing one's attention
on the names or great attributes of God.[134] The practices of Simran and Nām
Japnā encourage quiet internal meditation but may be practiced vocally in the sangat (holy congregation). Sikhs believe
that there are ten 'gates' to the body, the nine visible holes (e.g. nose
holes, ears holes, mouth, belly button, etc.) and the tenth invisible hole. The
tenth invisible hole is the topmost energy level and is called the tenth gate
or Dasam Duaar. When one reaches this stage through continuous practice
meditation becomes a habit that continues whilst walking, talking, eating,
awake and even sleeping. There is a distinct taste or flavour when a meditator
reaches this lofty stage of meditation, and experiences absolute peace and
tranquility inside and outside the body.
Followers of
the Sikh religion also believe that love comes through meditation on the lord's
name since meditation only conjures up positive emotions in oneself which are
portrayed through our actions. The first Guru of the Sikhs, Guru Nanak Dev Ji
preached the equality of all humankind and stressed the importance of living a
householder's life instead of wandering around jungles meditating, the latter
of which being a popular practice at the time. The Guru preached that we can
obtain liberation from life and death by living a totally normal family life
and by spreading love amongst every human being regardless of religion.
In the Sikh
religion, kirtan, otherwise known as singing the
hymns of God is seen as one of the most beneficial ways of aiding meditation,
and it too in some ways is believed to be a meditation of one kind.
Prayer beads
Most of the
ancient religions of the world have a tradition of using some type of prayer beads as tools in devotional meditation.[135][136][137] Most prayer beads and Christian rosaries consist of pearls or beads linked
together by a thread.[135][136] The Roman Catholic rosary is a string of beads containing
five sets with ten small beads. Each set of ten is separated by another bead.
The Hindu japa mala has 108 beads (the figure 108 in
itself having spiritual significance, as well as those used in Jainism and Buddhist
prayer beads.[138] Each bead is counted once as a
person recites a mantra until the person has gone all the
way around the mala.[138] The Muslim mishbaha has 99 beads. Specific meditations
of each religion may be different.
Secular meditation in the West
A collective
meditation in Sri Lanka
As stated by
the National Center for Complementary
and Alternative Medicine, a U.S. government entity within the National Institutes of Health that
advocates various forms of Alternative
Medicine,
"Meditation may be practiced for many reasons, such as to increase
calmness and physical relaxation, to improve psychological balance, to cope
with illness, or to enhance overall health and well-being."[139]
Sound-based meditation
After the
wave of interest in Transcendental Meditation in America and Europe in the
1960s, several secular alternatives emerged. Herbert Benson of Harvard
Medical School conducted a
series of clinical tests on meditators from various disciplines, including the Transcendental Meditation technique and Tibetan Buddhism. In 1975, Benson published a book
titled The Relaxation Response where he outlined his own version of meditation for
relaxation.[140] Also in the 1970s, the American
psychologist Patricia Carrington developed a similar technique called
Clinically Standardized Meditation (CSM).[141] In Norway, another sound-based method
called Acem Meditation developed a psychology of meditation and has been the
subject of several scientific studies.[142]
Biofeedback has been used by many researchers
since the 1950s in an effort to enter deeper states of mind.[143][144]
Mindfulness
Over the
past 20 years, mindfulness-based programs have become increasingly important to Westerners and
in the Western medical and psychological community as a means of helping
people, whether they be clinically sick or healthy.[145] Jon Kabat-Zinn, who founded the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction program in 1979, has defined mindfulness as
'moment to moment non-judgmental awareness.'[146]:626 Several methods are used during
time set aside specifically for mindfulness meditation, such as body scan
techniques or letting thought arise and pass, and also during our daily lives,
such as being aware of the taste and texture of the food that we eat.[147] Scientifically demonstrated
benefits of mindfulness practice include an increase in the body's ability to
heal and a shift from a tendency to use the right prefrontal cortex instead of the left prefrontal
cortex,[148] associated with a trend away from
depression and anxiety, and towards happiness, relaxation, and emotional
balance.[149]
Jacobson's Progressive Muscle Relaxation was developed by American physician
Edmund
Jacobson in the
early 1920s. In this practice one tenses and then relaxes muscle groups in a
sequential pattern whilst concentrating on how they feel. The method has been
seen to help people with many conditions especially extreme anxiety.[150]
Modern cross-cultural dissemination
Methods of
meditation have been cross-culturally disseminated at various times throughout
history, such as Buddhism going to East Asia, and Sufi practices going to many Islamic societies. Of
special relevance to the modern world is the dissemination of meditative
practices since the late 19th century, accompanying increased travel and
communication among cultures worldwide. Most prominent has been the
transmission of numerous Asian-derived practices to the West. In addition,
interest in some Western-based meditative practices has also been revived,[151]
and these have been disseminated to a limited extent to Asian countries.[152]
Ideas about
Eastern meditation had begun "seeping into American popular culture even
before the American Revolution through the various sects of European occult
Christianity,"[56]:3 and such ideas "came pouring
in [to America] during the era of the transcendentalists, especially between the 1840s and
the 1880s."[56]:3 But
The World Parliament of Religions, held in Chicago in 1893, was the landmark event that
increased Western awareness of meditation. This was the first time that Western
audiences on American soil received Asian spiritual teachings from Asians
themselves. Thereafter, Swami Vivekananda... [founded] various Vedanta ashrams... Anagarika
Dharmapala lectured at
Harvard on Theravada Buddhist meditation in 1904; Abdul Baha ... [toured] the US teaching the
principles of Bahai, and Soyen Shaku toured in 1907 teaching Zen...[56]:4
More
recently, in the 1960s, another surge in Western interest in meditative
practices began. Observers have suggested many types of explanations for this
interest in Eastern meditation and revived Western contemplation. Thomas Keating, a founder of Contemplative
Outreach, wrote that
"the rush to the East is a symptom of what is lacking in the West. There
is a deep spiritual hunger that is not being satisfied in the West."[153]:31 Daniel Goleman, a scholar of meditation, suggested
that the shift in interest from "established religions" to meditative
practices "is caused by the scarcity of the personal experience of these
[meditation-derived] transcendental states – the living spirit at the
common core of all religions."[19]:xxiv
Another
suggested contributing factor is the rise of communist political power in Asia,
which, "set the stage for an influx of Asian spiritual teachers to the
West,"[56]:7 oftentimes as refugees.[154]
Western context
In the late
19th century, Theosophists adopted the word
"meditation" to refer to various spiritual practices drawn from Hinduism, Buddhism and other Indian religions. Thus the English word
"meditation" does not exclusively translate to any single term or
concept, and can be used to translate words such as the Sanskrit dhāraṇā, dhyāna, samādhi and bhāvanā.[citation needed]
New studies
say meditation is psychologically beneficial.
Meditation
may be for a religious purpose, but even before being brought to the West it
was used in secular contexts.[citation needed] Beginning with the Theosophists
meditation has been employed in the West by a number of religious and spiritual
movements, such as Yoga, New Age and the New Thought movement.
Meditation
techniques have also been used by Western theories of counseling and
psychotherapy. Relaxation training works toward achieving mental and muscle
relaxation to reduce daily stresses. Jacobson is credited with developing the
initial progressive relaxation procedure. These techniques are used in
conjunction with other behavioral techniques. Originally used with systematic desensitization, relaxation techniques are now used with other
clinical problems. Meditation, hypnosis and biofeedback-induced relaxation are
a few of the techniques used with relaxation training. One of the eight
essential phases of EMDR (developed by Francine Shapiro),
bringing adequate closure to the end of each session, also entails the use of
relaxation techniques, including meditation. Multimodal therapy, a technically
eclectic approach to behavioral therapy, also employs the use of meditation as
a technique used in individual therapy.[155]
From the
point of view of psychology and physiology, meditation can induce an altered state of consciousness.[156] Such altered states of
consciousness may correspond to altered neuro-physiologic states.[157]
Today, there
are many different types of meditation practiced in western culture. Mindful
breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, and loving kindness meditations for
instance have been found to provide cognitive benefits such as relaxation and
decentering. With training in meditation, depressive rumination can be
decreased and overall peace of mind can flourish. Different techniques have
shown to work better for different people.[158]
Meditation, religion, and drugs
Many
traditions in which meditation is practiced, such as Sahaja Yoga, Transcendental Meditation,[159] Buddhism,[160] Hinduism,[161] and other religions, advise members
not to consume intoxicants, while others, such as the
Rastafarian movements and Native American Church, view drugs as integral to
their religious lifestyle.
The fifth of
the five precepts of the Pancasila, the ethical code in the Theravada and Mahayana Buddhist traditions, states that adherents
must not ingest, "intoxicating drinks and drugs causing heedlessness."
On the other
hand, the ingestion of psychoactives has been a central feature in the rituals
of many religions, in order to produce altered states of consciousness. In several traditional shamanistic ceremonies, drugs are used as
agents of ritual. In the Rastafari
movement, cannabis is believed to be a gift from Jah and a sacred herb to be used regularly, while alcohol is considered to
debase man. Native Americans use peyote, as part of religious ceremony, continuing today.[162] In India, the soma drink has a long history of use alongside prayer and
sacrifice, and is mentioned in the Vedas.
During the
1960s, both eastern meditation traditions and psychedelics, such as LSD, became popular in America, and it was suggested that
LSD use and meditation were both means to the same spiritual/existential end.[163] Many practitioners of eastern
traditions rejected this idea, including many who had tried LSD themselves. In The
Master Game, Robert S de
Ropp writes that
the "door to full consciousness" can be glimpsed with the aid of
substances, but to "pass beyond the door" requires yoga and
meditation. Other authors, such as Rick Strassman, believe that the relationship
between religious experiences reached by way of meditation and through the use
of psychedelic drugs deserves further exploration.[164] Also see Psychedelic psychotherapy.
Physical postures
Young
children practicing Transcendental Meditation in a Peruvian school
Main
article: Meditative
postures
Various
postures are taken up in some meditation techniques. Sitting, supine, and
standing postures are used. Popular in Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism are the full-lotus, half-lotus, Burmese, and kneeling positions. Meditation is sometimes
done while walking, known as kinhin, or while doing a simple task mindfully, known as samu.
Some mantra
techniques (as with Transcendental Meditation, a.k.a. "TM Technique")
do not require learning special positions, only sitting comfortably with eyes
closed.
Health research
Main
article: Research on
meditation
Research on
the processes and effects of meditation is a growing subfield of neurological
research.[165][166][167][168][169][170] Modern scientific techniques and
instruments, such as fMRI and EEG, have been used to see what happens in the body of
people when they meditate, and how their bodies and brain change after meditating regularly.[166][171][172][173][174]
Since the
1950s hundreds of studies on meditation have been conducted, though many of the
early studies were flawed and thus yielded unreliable results.[175][176] More recent reviews have pointed
out many of these flaws with the hope of guiding current research into a more
fruitful path.[177] More reports assessed that further
research needs to be directed towards the theoretical grounding and definition
of meditation.[175][178]
Popular culture
Main
article: Meditation in popular culture
Various
forms of meditation have been described in popular culture sources. In
particular, science
fiction stories
such as Frank
Herbert's Dune, Star Trek, Artemis Fowl, Star Wars, Maskman, Lost Horizon by James Hilton, and Stargate SG-1 have featured characters who
practice one form of meditation or another. Meditation also appears as overt
themes in novels such as Jack Kerouac's The Dharma Bums and Herman Hesse's Siddhartha.
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